In Democracy in America, published in 1835, Tocqueville wrote of the New World and its burgeoning democratic order. Observing from the perspective of a detached social scientist, Tocqueville wrote of his travels through America in the early 19th Century when the market revolution, Western expansion, and Jacksonian democracy were radically transforming the fabric of American life. He saw democracy as an equation that balanced liberty and equality, concern for the individual as well as the community.
Tocqueville wrote of the Americans, "Americans are so enamored of equality that they would rather be equal in slavery than unequal in freedom." [2]
A critic of individualism, Tocqueville thought that association, the coming together of people for common purpose, both public and private, binds Americans to an idea of nation larger than selfish desires, thus making both a self-conscious and active political society and a vibrant civil society functioning independently from the state. The main purpose of Tocqueville was analysis of functioning of political society and various forms of political associations, although he brought some reflections on civil society too (and relations between political and civil society). For Tocqueville as for Hegel and Marx, civil society was a sphere of private entrepreneurship and civilian affairs regulated by civil code [3].
Tocqueville's penetrating analysis sought to understand the peculiar nature of American political life. In describing America, he agreed with thinkers such as Aristotle and Montesquieu that the balance of property determined the balance of political power, but his conclusions after that differed radically from those of his predecessors. Tocqueville tried to understand why America was so different from Europe in the last throes of aristocracy. America, in contrast to the aristocratic ethic, was a society where hard work and money-making was the dominant ethic, where the common man enjoyed a level of dignity which was unprecedented, where commoners never deferred to elites, and where what he described as crass individualism and market capitalism had taken root to an extraordinary degree.
Tocqueville expressed interest in the unique American condition of equality in terms of income, using the 90/10 inequality ratio. His hypothetical analysis could later be applied to the Kuznets Curve. Tocqueville's data is consistent with the early stages of income equality of a developing country, which is not surprising considering America's heavy reliance on agriculture in the early nineteenth century. Tocqueville writes "Among a democratic people, where there is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living...Labor is held in honor; the prejudice is not against but in its favor." [4]
Alexis de Tocqueville
The uniquely American morals and opinions, Tocqueville argued, lay within the origins of American society and derived from the peculiar social conditions that had welcomed colonists in prior centuries. Indeed, the basis of much of the colonization was the search for religious freedom, the right to worship the Almighty in one's own way. Unlike Europe, venturers to America found a vast expanse of open land. Any and all who arrived could own their own land and cultivate an independent life. Sparse elites and a number of landed aristocrats existed, but, according to Tocqueville, these few stood no chance against the rapidly developing values bred by such vast land ownership. With such an open society, layered with so much opportunity, men of all sorts began working their way up in the world: industriousness became a dominant ethic, and "middling" values began taking root.
This equality of social conditions bred political and civilian values which determined the type of legislation passed in the colonies and later in the states. By the late 18th Century, democratic values which championed money-making, hard work, and individualism had eradicated, in the North, most remaining vestiges of old world aristocracy and values. Eliminating them in the South proved more difficult, for slavery had produced a landed aristocracy and web of patronage and dependence similar to the old world, which would last until the antebellum period before the Civil War.
Tocqueville asserted that the values that had triumphed in the North and were present in the South had begun to suffocate old-world ethics and social arrangements. Legislatures abolished primogeniture and entails, resulting in more widely distributed land holdings. Landed elites lost the ability to pass on fortunes to single individuals. Hereditary fortunes became exceedingly difficult to secure and more people were forced to struggle for their own living.
This rapidly democratizing society, as Tocqueville understood it, had a population devoted to "middling" values which wanted to amass, through hard work, vast fortunes. In Tocqueville's mind, this explained why America was so different from Europe. In Europe, he claimed, nobody cared about making money. The lower classes had no hope of gaining more than minimal wealth, while the upper classes found it crass, vulgar, and unbecoming of their sort to care about something as unseemly as money; many were virtually guaranteed wealth and took it for granted. At the same time in America workers would see people fashioned in exquisite attire and merely proclaim that through hard work they too would soon possess the fortune necessary to enjoy such luxuries.
But, despite maintaining with Aristotle, Montesquieu, and others that the balance of property determined the balance of power, Tocqueville argued that, as America showed, equitable property holdings did not ensure the rule of the best men. In fact, it did quite the opposite. The widespread, relatively equitable property ownership which distinguished America and determined its mores and values also explained why the American masses held elites in such contempt.
More than just imploding any traces of old-world aristocracy, ordinary Americans also refused to defer to those possessing, as Tocqueville put it, superior talent and intelligence. These natural elites, who Tocqueville asserted were the lone virtuous members of American society, could not enjoy much share in the political sphere as a result. Ordinary Americans enjoyed too much power, claimed too great a voice in the public sphere, to defer to intellectual superiors. This culture promoted a relatively pronounced equality, Tocqueville argued, but the same mores and opinions that ensured such equality also promoted, as he put it, a middling mediocrity.
Those who possessed true virtue and talent would be left with limited choices. Those with the most education and intelligence would either, Tocqueville prognosticated, join limited intellectual circles to explore the weighty and complex problems facing society which have today become the academic or contemplative realms, or use their superior talents to take advantage of America's growing obsession with money-making and amass vast fortunes in the private sector. Uniquely positioned at a crossroads in American History, Tocqueville's Democracy in America attempted to capture the essence of American culture and values.
Though a supporter of colonialism, Tocqueville could clearly perceive the evils that blacks and Indians had been subjected to in America. Tocqueville notes that among the races that exist in America:
The first who attracts the eye, the first in enlightenment, in power and in happiness, is the white man, the European, man par excellence; below him appear the Negro and the Indian. These two unfortunate races have neither birth, nor face, nor language, nor mores in common; only their misfortunes look alike. Both occupy an equally inferior position in the country that they inhabit; both experience the effects of tyranny; and if their miseries are different, they can accuse the same author for them.[5]
Tocqueville contrasted the settlers of Virginia with the middle-class, religious Puritans who founded New England, and analyzed the debasing influence of slavery:
"The men sent to Virginia were seekers of gold, adventurers without resources and without character, whose turbulent and restless spirit endangered the infant colony...Artisans and agriculturalists arrived afterwards...hardly in any respect above the level of the inferior classes in England. No lofty views, no spiritual conception presided over the foundation of these new settlements. The colony was scarcely established when slavery was introduced; this was the capital fact which was to exercise an immense influence on the character, the laws and the whole future of the South. Slavery...dishonors labor; it introduces idleness into society, and with idleness, ignorance and pride, luxury and distress. It enervates the powers of the mind and benumbs the activity of man. On this same English foundation there developed in the North very different characteristics.
[6]
Tocqueville concluded that removal of the Negro population from America could not resolve the problem as he writes at the end of the first Democracy:
If the colony of Liberia were able to receive thousands of new inhabitants every year, and if the Negroes were in a state to be sent thither with advantage; if the Union were to supply the society with annual subsidies, and to transport the Negroes to Africa in government vessels, it would still be unable to counterpoise the natural increase of population among the blacks; and as it could not remove as many men in a year as are born upon its territory within that time, it could not prevent the growth of the evil which is daily increasing in the states. The Negro race will never leave those shores of the American continent to which it was brought by the passions and the vices of Europeans; and it will not disappear from the New World as long as it continues to exist. The inhabitants of the United States may retard the calamities which they apprehend, but they cannot now destroy their efficient cause.
In 1855, he wrote the following text published by Maria Weston Chapman in the Liberty Bell: Testimony against Slavery
I do not think it is for me, a foreigner, to indicate to the United States the time, the measures, or the men by whom Slavery shall be abolished. Still, as the persevering enemy of despotism everywhere, and under all its forms, I am pained and astonished by the fact that the freest people in the world is, at the present time, almost the only one among civilized and Christian nations which yet maintains personal servitude; and this while serfdom itself is about disappearing, where it has not already disappeared, from the most degraded nations of Europe.An old and sincere friend of America, I am uneasy at seeing Slavery retard her progress, tarnish her glory, furnish arms to her detractors, compromise the future career of the Union which is the guaranty of her safety and greatness, and point out beforehand to her, to all her enemies, the spot where they are to strike. As a man, too, I am moved at the spectacle of man's degradation by man, and I hope to see the day when the law will grant equal civil liberty to all the inhabitants of the same empire, as God accords the freedom of the will, without distinction, to the dwellers upon earth.[7]
According to him assimilation of blacks would be almost impossible and this was already being demonstrated in the Northern states. As Tocqueville predicted, formal freedom and equality and segregation would become this population's reality after the Civil War and during Reconstruction — as would the bumpy road to true integration of blacks.
Assimilation, however, was the best solution for Native Americans. But since they were too proud to assimilate, they would inevitably become extinct. Displacement was another part of America's Indian policy. Both populations were "undemocratic", or without the qualities, intellectual and otherwise, needed to live in a democracy. Tocqueville shared many views on assimilation and segregation of his and the coming epochs, but he opposed Gobineau's scientific racism theories as found in The Inequality of Human Races (1853–1855).[8]
Toqueville was also something of a forward thinking prophet when, in hisDemocracy In America he almost seems to predict the future of the world in the Cold War saying "There are now two great nations in the world, which starting from different points, seem to be advancing toward the same goal: the Russians and the Anglo-Americans... Each seems called by some secret design of Providence one day to hold in its hands the destinies of half the world." [9].
[edit] The 1841 discourse on the Conquest of Algeria
French historian of colonialism Olivier LeCour Grandmaison has underlined how Tocqueville (as well as Michelet) used the term "extermination" to describe what was happening during the colonization of Western United States and the Indian removal period.[10] Tocqueville thus expressed himself, in 1841, concerning the conquest of Algeria:
As far as I am concerned, I came back from Africa with the pathetic notion that at present in our way of waging war we are far more barbaric than the Arabs themselves. These days, they represent civilization, we do not. This way of waging war seems to me as stupid as it is cruel. It can only be found in the head of a coarse and brutal soldier. Indeed, it was pointless to replace the Turks only to reproduce what the world rightly found so hateful in them. This, even for the sake of interest is more noxious than useful; for, as another officer was telling me, if our sole aim is to equal the Turks, in fact we shall be in a far lower position than theirs: barbarians for barbarians, the Turks will always outdo us because they are Muslim barbarians. In France, I have often heard men I respect but do not approve of, deplore that crops should be burnt and granaries emptied and finally that unarmed men, women and children should be seized. In my view these are unfortunate circumstances that any people wishing to wage war against the Arabs must accept. I think that all the means available to wreck tribes must be used, barring those that the human kind and the right of nations condemn. I personally believe that the laws of war enable us to ravage the country and that we must do so either by destroying the crops at harvest time or any time by making fast forays also known as raids the aim of which it to get hold of men or flocks.[11][12]
Whatever the case, we may say in a general manner that all political freedoms must be suspended in Algeria.[13]
Tocqueville thought the conquest of Algeria was important for two reasons: first, his understanding of the international situation and France’s position in the world, and, second, changes in French society.[14] Tocqueville believed that war and colonization would "restore national pride, threatened," he believed, by "the gradual softening of social mores" in the middle classes. Their taste for "material pleasures" was spreading to the whole of society, giving it "an example of weakness and egotism"." Applauding the methods of General Bugeaud, Tocqueville went as far as saying that "war in Africa" had become a science: "war in Africa is a science. Everyone is familiar with its rules and everyone can apply those rules with almost complete certainty of success. One of the greatest services that Field Marshal Bugeaud has rendered his country is to have spread, perfected and made everyone aware of this new science."[15]
Tocqueville advocated racial segregation in Algeria with two distinct legislations, one for each very separate communities.[16] Such legislation would eventually be enacted with the Crémieux decrees and the 1881 Indigenous Code, which gave French citizenship to the European settlers only, while Muslim Algerians were confined to a second-grade citizenship
Source; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville#Democracy_in_America
Pazartesi, Mayıs 25, 2009
Alexis de Tocqueville
Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville (July 29, 1805, Paris – April 16, 1859, Cannes) was a French political thinker and historian best known for his Democracy in America (appearing in two volumes: 1835 and 1840) and The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856). In both of these works, he explored the effects of the rising equality of social conditions on the individual and the state in western societies.
Democracy in America (1835), his major work, published after his travels in the United States, is today considered an early work of sociology and political science. An eminent representative of the classical liberal political tradition, Tocqueville was an active participant in French politics, first under the July Monarchy (1830–1848) and then during the Second Republic (1849–1851) which succeeded the February 1848 Revolution. He retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonaparte's December 2, 1851 coup, and thereafter began work on The Old Regime and the Revolution, Volume I.
source: wikipedia.com
Democracy in America (1835), his major work, published after his travels in the United States, is today considered an early work of sociology and political science. An eminent representative of the classical liberal political tradition, Tocqueville was an active participant in French politics, first under the July Monarchy (1830–1848) and then during the Second Republic (1849–1851) which succeeded the February 1848 Revolution. He retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonaparte's December 2, 1851 coup, and thereafter began work on The Old Regime and the Revolution, Volume I.
source: wikipedia.com
SUSAN B. ANTHONY'S BIOGRAPHY
SUSAN B. ANTHONY'S BIOGRAPHY
Susan B. Anthony was born and raised in West Grove, near Adams, Massachusetts. She was the second oldest of seven children, Guelma Penn (1818), Susan Brownell (1820), Hannah E. (1821), Daniel Read (1824), Mary Stafford (1827), Eliza Tefft (1832), and Jacob Merritt (1834), born to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read. One brother, publisher Daniel Read Anthony, would become active in the anti-slavery movement in Kansas, while a sister, Mary Stafford Anthony, became a teacher and a woman's rights activist. Anthony remained close to her sisters throughout her life.
Anthony's father Daniel was a cotton manufacturer and abolitionist, a stern but open-minded man who was born into the Quaker religion. He did not allow toys or amusements into the household, claiming that they would distract the soul from the "inner light".Her mother Lucy was a student in Daniel's school; the two fell in love and agreed to marry in 1817, but Lucy was less sure about marrying into the Society of Friends (Quakers). She was not a convinced Quaker and claimed that she was “not good enough” for them. Lucy Anthony was a progressive-minded woman. She attended the Rochester women’s rights convention held in August 1848, two weeks after the historic Seneca Falls Convention, and signed the Rochester convention’s Declaration of Sentiments. Lucy and Daniel Anthony enforced self-discipline, principled convictions, and belief in one's own self-worth.
Susan was a precocious child, having learned to read and write at age three. In 1826, when she was six years old, the Anthony family moved from Massachusetts to Battenville, New York. Susan was sent to attend a local district school, where a teacher refused to teach her long division because of her gender. Upon learning of the weak education she was receiving, her father promptly had her placed in a group home school, where he taught Susan himself. Mary Perkins, another teacher there, conveyed a progressive image of womanhood to Anthony, further fostering her growing belief in women's equality.
In 1837, Anthony was sent to Deborah Moulson's Female Seminary, a Quaker boarding school in Philadelphia. She was not happy at Moulson's, but she did not have to stay there long. She was forced to end her formal studies because her family, like many others, was financially ruined during the Panic of 1837. Their losses were so great that they attempted to sell everything in an auction, even their most personal belongings, which were saved at the last minute when Susan's uncle, Joshua Read, stepped up and bid for them in order to restore them to the family.
In 1839, the family moved to Hardscrabble, New York, in the wake of the panic and economic depression that followed. That same year, Anthony left home to teach and to help pay off her father's debts. She taught first at Eunice Kenyon's Friends' Seminary, and then at the Canajoharie Academy in 1846, where she rose to become headmistress of the Female Department. Anthony's first occupation inspired her to fight for wages equivalent to those of male teachers, since men earned roughly four times more than women for the same duties.
In 1849, at age 29, Anthony quit teaching and moved to the family farm in Rochester, New York. She began to take part in conventions and gatherings related to the temperance movement. In Rochester, she attended the local Unitarian Church and began to distance herself from the Quakers, in part because she had frequently witnessed instances of hypocritical behavior such as the use of alcohol amongst Quaker preachers. As she got older, Anthony continued to move further away from organized religion in general, and she was later chastised by various Christian religious groups for displaying irreligious tendencies.
In her youth, Anthony was very self-conscious of her looks and speaking abilities. She long resisted public speaking for fear she would not be sufficiently eloquent. Despite these insecurities, she became a renowned public presence, eventually helping to lead the women's movementSource: en.wikipedia.com
SUSAN B. ANTHONY'S BIOGRAPHY
SUSAN B. ANTHONY'S BIOGRAPHY
Susan B. Anthony was born and raised in West Grove, near Adams, Massachusetts. She was the second oldest of seven children, Guelma Penn (1818), Susan Brownell (1820), Hannah E. (1821), Daniel Read (1824), Mary Stafford (1827), Eliza Tefft (1832), and Jacob Merritt (1834), born to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read. One brother, publisher Daniel Read Anthony, would become active in the anti-slavery movement in Kansas, while a sister, Mary Stafford Anthony, became a teacher and a woman's rights activist. Anthony remained close to her sisters throughout her life.
Anthony's father Daniel was a cotton manufacturer and abolitionist, a stern but open-minded man who was born into the Quaker religion. He did not allow toys or amusements into the household, claiming that they would distract the soul from the "inner light".Her mother Lucy was a student in Daniel's school; the two fell in love and agreed to marry in 1817, but Lucy was less sure about marrying into the Society of Friends (Quakers). She was not a convinced Quaker and claimed that she was “not good enough” for them. Lucy Anthony was a progressive-minded woman. She attended the Rochester women’s rights convention held in August 1848, two weeks after the historic Seneca Falls Convention, and signed the Rochester convention’s Declaration of Sentiments. Lucy and Daniel Anthony enforced self-discipline, principled convictions, and belief in one's own self-worth.
Susan was a precocious child, having learned to read and write at age three. In 1826, when she was six years old, the Anthony family moved from Massachusetts to Battenville, New York. Susan was sent to attend a local district school, where a teacher refused to teach her long division because of her gender. Upon learning of the weak education she was receiving, her father promptly had her placed in a group home school, where he taught Susan himself. Mary Perkins, another teacher there, conveyed a progressive image of womanhood to Anthony, further fostering her growing belief in women's equality.
In 1837, Anthony was sent to Deborah Moulson's Female Seminary, a Quaker boarding school in Philadelphia. She was not happy at Moulson's, but she did not have to stay there long. She was forced to end her formal studies because her family, like many others, was financially ruined during the Panic of 1837. Their losses were so great that they attempted to sell everything in an auction, even their most personal belongings, which were saved at the last minute when Susan's uncle, Joshua Read, stepped up and bid for them in order to restore them to the family.
In 1839, the family moved to Hardscrabble, New York, in the wake of the panic and economic depression that followed. That same year, Anthony left home to teach and to help pay off her father's debts. She taught first at Eunice Kenyon's Friends' Seminary, and then at the Canajoharie Academy in 1846, where she rose to become headmistress of the Female Department. Anthony's first occupation inspired her to fight for wages equivalent to those of male teachers, since men earned roughly four times more than women for the same duties.
In 1849, at age 29, Anthony quit teaching and moved to the family farm in Rochester, New York. She began to take part in conventions and gatherings related to the temperance movement. In Rochester, she attended the local Unitarian Church and began to distance herself from the Quakers, in part because she had frequently witnessed instances of hypocritical behavior such as the use of alcohol amongst Quaker preachers. As she got older, Anthony continued to move further away from organized religion in general, and she was later chastised by various Christian religious groups for displaying irreligious tendencies.
In her youth, Anthony was very self-conscious of her looks and speaking abilities. She long resisted public speaking for fear she would not be sufficiently eloquent. Despite these insecurities, she became a renowned public presence, eventually helping to lead the women's movementSource: en.wikipedia.com
Susan B. Anthony was born and raised in West Grove, near Adams, Massachusetts. She was the second oldest of seven children, Guelma Penn (1818), Susan Brownell (1820), Hannah E. (1821), Daniel Read (1824), Mary Stafford (1827), Eliza Tefft (1832), and Jacob Merritt (1834), born to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read. One brother, publisher Daniel Read Anthony, would become active in the anti-slavery movement in Kansas, while a sister, Mary Stafford Anthony, became a teacher and a woman's rights activist. Anthony remained close to her sisters throughout her life.
Anthony's father Daniel was a cotton manufacturer and abolitionist, a stern but open-minded man who was born into the Quaker religion. He did not allow toys or amusements into the household, claiming that they would distract the soul from the "inner light".Her mother Lucy was a student in Daniel's school; the two fell in love and agreed to marry in 1817, but Lucy was less sure about marrying into the Society of Friends (Quakers). She was not a convinced Quaker and claimed that she was “not good enough” for them. Lucy Anthony was a progressive-minded woman. She attended the Rochester women’s rights convention held in August 1848, two weeks after the historic Seneca Falls Convention, and signed the Rochester convention’s Declaration of Sentiments. Lucy and Daniel Anthony enforced self-discipline, principled convictions, and belief in one's own self-worth.
Susan was a precocious child, having learned to read and write at age three. In 1826, when she was six years old, the Anthony family moved from Massachusetts to Battenville, New York. Susan was sent to attend a local district school, where a teacher refused to teach her long division because of her gender. Upon learning of the weak education she was receiving, her father promptly had her placed in a group home school, where he taught Susan himself. Mary Perkins, another teacher there, conveyed a progressive image of womanhood to Anthony, further fostering her growing belief in women's equality.
In 1837, Anthony was sent to Deborah Moulson's Female Seminary, a Quaker boarding school in Philadelphia. She was not happy at Moulson's, but she did not have to stay there long. She was forced to end her formal studies because her family, like many others, was financially ruined during the Panic of 1837. Their losses were so great that they attempted to sell everything in an auction, even their most personal belongings, which were saved at the last minute when Susan's uncle, Joshua Read, stepped up and bid for them in order to restore them to the family.
In 1839, the family moved to Hardscrabble, New York, in the wake of the panic and economic depression that followed. That same year, Anthony left home to teach and to help pay off her father's debts. She taught first at Eunice Kenyon's Friends' Seminary, and then at the Canajoharie Academy in 1846, where she rose to become headmistress of the Female Department. Anthony's first occupation inspired her to fight for wages equivalent to those of male teachers, since men earned roughly four times more than women for the same duties.
In 1849, at age 29, Anthony quit teaching and moved to the family farm in Rochester, New York. She began to take part in conventions and gatherings related to the temperance movement. In Rochester, she attended the local Unitarian Church and began to distance herself from the Quakers, in part because she had frequently witnessed instances of hypocritical behavior such as the use of alcohol amongst Quaker preachers. As she got older, Anthony continued to move further away from organized religion in general, and she was later chastised by various Christian religious groups for displaying irreligious tendencies.
In her youth, Anthony was very self-conscious of her looks and speaking abilities. She long resisted public speaking for fear she would not be sufficiently eloquent. Despite these insecurities, she became a renowned public presence, eventually helping to lead the women's movementSource: en.wikipedia.com
Perşembe, Mayıs 21, 2009
Oliver GOLDSMITH
Goldsmith's birth date and year are not known with certainty. According to the Library of Congress authority file, he told a biographer that he was born on 29 November, 1731, or perhaps in 1730. Other sources have indicated 10 November, on any year from 1727 to 1731.10 November, 1730, is now the most commonly accepted birth date.
Neither is the location of his birthplace certain. He was born either in the townland of Pallas, near Ballymahon, County Longford, Ireland, where his father was the Anglican curate of the parish of Forgney, or at the residence of his maternal grandparents, at the Smith Hill House in the diocese of Elphin, County Roscommon where his grandfather Oliver Jones was a clergyman and master of the Elphin diocesan school. When he was two years old, Goldsmith's father was appointed the rector of the parish of "Kilkenny West" in County Westmeath. The family moved to the parsonage at Lissoy, between Athlone and Ballymahon, and continued to live there until his father's death in 1747.
In 1744 Goldsmith went up to Trinity College, Dublin. Neglecting his studies in theology and law, he fell to the bottom of his class. His tutor was Theaker Wilder. He was graduated in 1749 as a Bachelor of Arts, but without the discipline or distinction that might have gained him entry to a profession in the church or the law; his education seemed to have given him mainly a taste for fine clothes, playing cards, singing Irish airs and playing the flute. He lived for a short time with his mother, tried various professions without success, studied medicine desultorily at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Leiden, and set out on a walking tour of Flanders, France, Switzerland and Northern Italy, living by his wits (busking with his flute).
A literary party at Sir Joshua Reynolds - 1781. The painting shows the friends of Reynolds - many of whom were members of "The Club" - use cursor to identify.
He settled in London in 1756, where he briefly held various jobs, including apothecary's assistant and usher of a school. Perennially in debt and addicted to gambling, Goldsmith produced a massive output as a hack writer for the publishers of London, but his few painstaking works earned him the company of Samuel Johnson, with whom he was a founding member of "The Club". The combination of his literary work and his dissolute lifestyle led Horace Walpole to give him the epithet inspired idiot. During this period he used the pseudonym "James Willington" (the name of a fellow student at Trinity) to publish his 1758 translation of the autobiography of the Huguenot Jean Marteilhe.
Goldsmith was described by contemporaries as prone to envy, a congenial but impetuous and disorganised personality who once planned to emigrate to America but failed because he missed his ship.
His premature death in 1774 may have been partly due to his own misdiagnosis of his kidney infection. Goldsmith was buried in Temple Church. The inscription reads; "HERE LIES/OLIVER GOLDSMITH". There is a monument to him in the center of Ballymahon, also in Westminster Abbey with an epitaph written by Samuel Johnson.[1]
Neither is the location of his birthplace certain. He was born either in the townland of Pallas, near Ballymahon, County Longford, Ireland, where his father was the Anglican curate of the parish of Forgney, or at the residence of his maternal grandparents, at the Smith Hill House in the diocese of Elphin, County Roscommon where his grandfather Oliver Jones was a clergyman and master of the Elphin diocesan school. When he was two years old, Goldsmith's father was appointed the rector of the parish of "Kilkenny West" in County Westmeath. The family moved to the parsonage at Lissoy, between Athlone and Ballymahon, and continued to live there until his father's death in 1747.
In 1744 Goldsmith went up to Trinity College, Dublin. Neglecting his studies in theology and law, he fell to the bottom of his class. His tutor was Theaker Wilder. He was graduated in 1749 as a Bachelor of Arts, but without the discipline or distinction that might have gained him entry to a profession in the church or the law; his education seemed to have given him mainly a taste for fine clothes, playing cards, singing Irish airs and playing the flute. He lived for a short time with his mother, tried various professions without success, studied medicine desultorily at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Leiden, and set out on a walking tour of Flanders, France, Switzerland and Northern Italy, living by his wits (busking with his flute).
A literary party at Sir Joshua Reynolds - 1781. The painting shows the friends of Reynolds - many of whom were members of "The Club" - use cursor to identify.
He settled in London in 1756, where he briefly held various jobs, including apothecary's assistant and usher of a school. Perennially in debt and addicted to gambling, Goldsmith produced a massive output as a hack writer for the publishers of London, but his few painstaking works earned him the company of Samuel Johnson, with whom he was a founding member of "The Club". The combination of his literary work and his dissolute lifestyle led Horace Walpole to give him the epithet inspired idiot. During this period he used the pseudonym "James Willington" (the name of a fellow student at Trinity) to publish his 1758 translation of the autobiography of the Huguenot Jean Marteilhe.
Goldsmith was described by contemporaries as prone to envy, a congenial but impetuous and disorganised personality who once planned to emigrate to America but failed because he missed his ship.
His premature death in 1774 may have been partly due to his own misdiagnosis of his kidney infection. Goldsmith was buried in Temple Church. The inscription reads; "HERE LIES/OLIVER GOLDSMITH". There is a monument to him in the center of Ballymahon, also in Westminster Abbey with an epitaph written by Samuel Johnson.[1]
TROJAN WAR
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta. The war is among the most important events in Greek mythology, and was narrated in many works of Greek literature, including the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer. The Iliad relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy, while the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the Achaean leaders. Other parts of the war were told in a cycle of epic poems, which has only survived in fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets like Virgil and Ovid.
The war originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite, after Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, gave them a golden apple, sometimes known as the Apple of Discord, marked "for the fairest". Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris, who judged that Aphrodite, as the "fairest", should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made Helen, the most beautiful of all women and wife of Menelaus, fall in love with Paris, who took her to Troy. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the brother of Helen's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris' insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans Achilles and Ajax, and the Trojans Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans (except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves) and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to modern day Italy.
The Ancient Greeks thought the Trojan War was a historical event that had taken place in the 13th or 12th century BC, and believed that Troy was located in modern day Turkey near the Dardanelles. By modern times both the war and the city were widely believed to be non-historical. In 1870, however, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated a site in this area which he identified as Troy; this claim is now accepted by most scholars.[1][citation needed] Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War is an open question. Many scholars believe that there is a historical core to the tale, though this may simply mean that the Homeric stories are a fusion of various tales of sieges and expeditions by Mycenaean Greeks during the Bronze Age. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War derive from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th centuries BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly corresponds with archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VIIa.[2]
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War
The war originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite, after Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, gave them a golden apple, sometimes known as the Apple of Discord, marked "for the fairest". Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris, who judged that Aphrodite, as the "fairest", should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made Helen, the most beautiful of all women and wife of Menelaus, fall in love with Paris, who took her to Troy. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the brother of Helen's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris' insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans Achilles and Ajax, and the Trojans Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans (except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves) and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to modern day Italy.
The Ancient Greeks thought the Trojan War was a historical event that had taken place in the 13th or 12th century BC, and believed that Troy was located in modern day Turkey near the Dardanelles. By modern times both the war and the city were widely believed to be non-historical. In 1870, however, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated a site in this area which he identified as Troy; this claim is now accepted by most scholars.[1][citation needed] Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War is an open question. Many scholars believe that there is a historical core to the tale, though this may simply mean that the Homeric stories are a fusion of various tales of sieges and expeditions by Mycenaean Greeks during the Bronze Age. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War derive from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th centuries BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly corresponds with archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VIIa.[2]
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War
RAPE OF OF LOCK
The Rape of the Lock is a mock-heroic narrative poem written by Alexander Pope, first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellany in May 1712 in two cantos (334 lines), but then revised, expanded and reissued under Pope's name on March 2, 1714, in a much-expanded 5-canto version (794 lines).
[edit] The Poem
The poem satirises a petty squabble by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident recounted by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic Catholic families at a period in England when Catholicism was legally proscribed. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut off a lock of her hair without permission, and the consequent argument had created a breach between the two families. Pope wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to "comically merge the two." He utilised the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced an entire system of "sylphs," or guardian spirits of virgins, a parodic version of the gods and goddesses of conventional epic.
Pope’s poem mocks the traditions of classical epics: the rape of Helen of Troy becomes here the theft of a lock of hair; the gods become minute sylphs; the description of Achilles’ shield becomes one of Belinda’s petticoats. He also uses the epic style of invocations, lamentations, exclamations and similes, and in some cases adds parody to imitation by following the framework of actual speeches in Homer’s Iliad. Although the poem is extremely funny at times, Pope always keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that the loss of a lock of hair touches Belinda deeply. As his introductory letter makes clear, women in that period were essentially supposed to be decorative rather than rational, and the loss of beauty was a serious matter.
The humour of the poem comes from the tempest in a teapot of vanity being couched within the elaborate, formal verbal structure of an epic poem.
Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from "The Rape of the Lock": Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel, the last name also (previously) appearing in Shakespeare's The Tempest
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Lock
SOURCE:
[edit] The Poem
The poem satirises a petty squabble by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident recounted by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic Catholic families at a period in England when Catholicism was legally proscribed. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut off a lock of her hair without permission, and the consequent argument had created a breach between the two families. Pope wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to "comically merge the two." He utilised the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced an entire system of "sylphs," or guardian spirits of virgins, a parodic version of the gods and goddesses of conventional epic.
Pope’s poem mocks the traditions of classical epics: the rape of Helen of Troy becomes here the theft of a lock of hair; the gods become minute sylphs; the description of Achilles’ shield becomes one of Belinda’s petticoats. He also uses the epic style of invocations, lamentations, exclamations and similes, and in some cases adds parody to imitation by following the framework of actual speeches in Homer’s Iliad. Although the poem is extremely funny at times, Pope always keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that the loss of a lock of hair touches Belinda deeply. As his introductory letter makes clear, women in that period were essentially supposed to be decorative rather than rational, and the loss of beauty was a serious matter.
The humour of the poem comes from the tempest in a teapot of vanity being couched within the elaborate, formal verbal structure of an epic poem.
Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from "The Rape of the Lock": Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel, the last name also (previously) appearing in Shakespeare's The Tempest
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Lock
SOURCE:
DEiSM
Deism is a philosophical belief in the existence of a God on the basis of reason, and observation of the natural world alone. Deists generally reject the notion of supernatural revelation as a basis of truth and religious dogma. These views contrast with the dependence on divine revelation found in many Christian,[1] Islamic and Judaic teachings.
Deists typically reject most supernatural events (prophecy, miracles) and tend to assert that God (or "The Supreme Architect") has a plan for the universe that is not altered either by God intervening in the affairs of human life or by suspending the natural laws of the universe. What organized religions see as divine revelation and holy books, most deists see as interpretations made by other humans, rather than as authoritative sources.
Deism became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in the United Kingdom, France and the United States, mostly among those raised as Christians who found they could not believe in either a triune God, the divinity of Jesus, miracles, or the inerrancy of scriptures, but who did believe in one god. Initially it did not form any congregations, but in time deism strongly influenced other religious groups, such as Unitarianism and Universalism, which developed from it. It continues to this day in the form of classical deism and modern deism.
sOURCE:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism
Deists typically reject most supernatural events (prophecy, miracles) and tend to assert that God (or "The Supreme Architect") has a plan for the universe that is not altered either by God intervening in the affairs of human life or by suspending the natural laws of the universe. What organized religions see as divine revelation and holy books, most deists see as interpretations made by other humans, rather than as authoritative sources.
Deism became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in the United Kingdom, France and the United States, mostly among those raised as Christians who found they could not believe in either a triune God, the divinity of Jesus, miracles, or the inerrancy of scriptures, but who did believe in one god. Initially it did not form any congregations, but in time deism strongly influenced other religious groups, such as Unitarianism and Universalism, which developed from it. It continues to this day in the form of classical deism and modern deism.
sOURCE:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism
THE ESSAY ON MAN
An Essay on Man is a poem published by Alexander Pope in 1734. It is a rationalistic effort to use philosophy in order to "vindicate the ways of God to man" (l.16), a variation of John Milton's claim in the opening lines of Paradise Lost, that he will "justify the ways of God to man" (1.26). It is concerned with the part evil plays in the world and with the natural order God has decreed for man. Because man cannot know God's purposes, he cannot complain about his position in the Great Chain of Being (ll.33-34) and must accept that "Whatever IS, is RIGHT" (l.292). More than any other work, it popularized optimistic philosophy throughout England and the rest of Europe.
The essay, written in heroic couplets, comprises four epistles. Pope began work on it in 1729, and had finished the first three by 1731. However, they did not appear until early 1733, with the fourth epistle published the following year. The poem was originally published anonymously; Pope did not admit authorship until 1735.
Pope reveals in his introductory statement, "The Design," that An Essay on Man was originally conceived as part of a longer philosophical poem, with four separate books. What we have today would comprise the first book. The second was to be a set of epistles on human reason, arts and sciences, human talent, as well as the use of learning, science, and wit "together with a satire against the misapplications of them." The third book would discuss politics, and the fourth book "private ethics" or "practical morality." Often quoted is the following passage, the first verse paragraph of the second book, which neatly summarizes some of the religious and humanistic tenets of the poem:
Know then thyself, presume not God to scanThe proper study of Mankind is Man.Placed on this isthmus of a middle state,A Being darkly wise, and rudely great:With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side,With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride,He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest;In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast;In doubt his mind and body to prefer;Born but to die, and reas'ning but to err;Alike in ignorance, his reason such,Whether he thinks too little, or too much;Chaos of Thought and Passion, all confus'd;Still by himself, abus'd or disabus'd;Created half to rise and half to fall;Great Lord of all things, yet a prey to all,Sole judge of truth, in endless error hurl'd;The glory, jest and riddle of the world.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay_on_Man
The essay, written in heroic couplets, comprises four epistles. Pope began work on it in 1729, and had finished the first three by 1731. However, they did not appear until early 1733, with the fourth epistle published the following year. The poem was originally published anonymously; Pope did not admit authorship until 1735.
Pope reveals in his introductory statement, "The Design," that An Essay on Man was originally conceived as part of a longer philosophical poem, with four separate books. What we have today would comprise the first book. The second was to be a set of epistles on human reason, arts and sciences, human talent, as well as the use of learning, science, and wit "together with a satire against the misapplications of them." The third book would discuss politics, and the fourth book "private ethics" or "practical morality." Often quoted is the following passage, the first verse paragraph of the second book, which neatly summarizes some of the religious and humanistic tenets of the poem:
Know then thyself, presume not God to scanThe proper study of Mankind is Man.Placed on this isthmus of a middle state,A Being darkly wise, and rudely great:With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side,With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride,He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest;In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast;In doubt his mind and body to prefer;Born but to die, and reas'ning but to err;Alike in ignorance, his reason such,Whether he thinks too little, or too much;Chaos of Thought and Passion, all confus'd;Still by himself, abus'd or disabus'd;Created half to rise and half to fall;Great Lord of all things, yet a prey to all,Sole judge of truth, in endless error hurl'd;The glory, jest and riddle of the world.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay_on_Man
WHO is ALEXANDER POPE
Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744) is generally regarded as the greatest English poet of the eighteenth century,[1] best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the third most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson.[2] Pope was a master of the heroic couplet.
HİS LİFE
Pope was born in London to Alexander Pope (senior, a linen merchant) and Edith Pope (née Turner), who were both Catholics.[3] Pope's education was affected by the penal law in force at the time upholding the status of the established Church of England, which banned Catholics from teaching on pain of perpetual imprisonment. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, then went to Twyford School in about 1698–9.[4] He then went to two Catholic schools in London.[5] Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas.[6]
In 1700, his family moved to a small estate in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest.[7] This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles (16 km) of either London or Westminster.[citation needed] Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. Pope's formal education ended at this time, and from then on he mostly educated himself by reading the works of classical writers such as the satirists Horace and Juvenal, the epic poets Homer and Virgil, as well as English authors like Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Dryden.[8] He also studied many languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek poets. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, and William Walsh.[9] [10]
At Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll (the future dedicatee of The Rape of the Lock), was twenty years older than the poet and had made many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet, who helped Pope revise his first major work, The Pastorals. He also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and (his alleged future lover) Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends.[11]
From the age of 12, he suffered numerous health problems, such as Pott's disease (a form of tuberculosis that affects the bone) which deformed his body and stunted his growth, leaving him with a severe hunchback. His tuberculosis infection caused other health problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes, and abdominal pain.[12] He never grew beyond 1.37 metres (4 feet, 6 inches) tall. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic; his poor health only alienated him further. Although he never married, he had many female friends whom he wrote witty letters. He did have one alleged lover, his lifelong friend, Martha Blount.[13] [14][15] [16]
Alexander Pope became a Freemason. He was a member of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, and also belonged to the Spalding Gentlemen's Society.
SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pope
HİS LİFE
Pope was born in London to Alexander Pope (senior, a linen merchant) and Edith Pope (née Turner), who were both Catholics.[3] Pope's education was affected by the penal law in force at the time upholding the status of the established Church of England, which banned Catholics from teaching on pain of perpetual imprisonment. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, then went to Twyford School in about 1698–9.[4] He then went to two Catholic schools in London.[5] Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas.[6]
In 1700, his family moved to a small estate in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest.[7] This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles (16 km) of either London or Westminster.[citation needed] Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. Pope's formal education ended at this time, and from then on he mostly educated himself by reading the works of classical writers such as the satirists Horace and Juvenal, the epic poets Homer and Virgil, as well as English authors like Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Dryden.[8] He also studied many languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek poets. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, and William Walsh.[9] [10]
At Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll (the future dedicatee of The Rape of the Lock), was twenty years older than the poet and had made many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet, who helped Pope revise his first major work, The Pastorals. He also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and (his alleged future lover) Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends.[11]
From the age of 12, he suffered numerous health problems, such as Pott's disease (a form of tuberculosis that affects the bone) which deformed his body and stunted his growth, leaving him with a severe hunchback. His tuberculosis infection caused other health problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes, and abdominal pain.[12] He never grew beyond 1.37 metres (4 feet, 6 inches) tall. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic; his poor health only alienated him further. Although he never married, he had many female friends whom he wrote witty letters. He did have one alleged lover, his lifelong friend, Martha Blount.[13] [14][15] [16]
Alexander Pope became a Freemason. He was a member of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, and also belonged to the Spalding Gentlemen's Society.
SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pope
CRAİGLIST
Craigslist
Craigslist is the brainchild of Craig Newmark, and has become one of the most popular sites on the Internet. Started in San Francisco in 1995, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist is perhaps the ultimate site for classified listings. It offers job advertisements, personal ads, ads for cars, pets, home supplies and a plethora of other choices. The website is built around communities, and craigslistcraigslistcraigslist now offers sites in 450 cities and countries throughout the world. Financial information about the nonprofit company is not disclosed, but business experts believe craigslistcraigslist is worth over 10 million US dollars (USD).
For the most part, posting and reading ads on craigslist is free. The revenue made from craigslist is generated by people posting job ads at significantly below market rate. As of 2004, job ads for large businesses cost 75 USD in San Francisco and the surrounding Bay Area. In other cities and countries, job ad postings cost 25 USD. To post an ad in the "gigs" section of the want ads is free. CraigslistCraigslistCraigslist does not post banners ads, preferring to earn money only through job posting revenue.
The lowered rate for posting want ads has made craigslistcraigslistcraigslist a proverbial thorn in the side of more traditional companies offering classified ads. Newspapers, in particular, have attacked craigslistcraigslistcraigslist on numerous occasions for posting advertisements that might be construed as endorsement of illegal activities. CraigslistCraigslistCraigslist sections that sell puppies, for example, were part of a lawsuit suggesting craigslistcraigslistcraigslist illegally endorses puppy mills or the sale of outlawed breeds. The San Francisco Chronicle sued craigslistcraigslistcraigslist for this purpose, but the suit was dismissed.
It is true that craigslistcraigslistcraigslist does seriously undercut competitive newspapers through its classified ads. This is especially the case for ads other than jobs. A person wanting to sell a sofa, a car, or rent property, saves a lot of money by listing on craigslistcraigslistcraigslist instead of in a newspaper. In fact, they pay no money for doing so, whereas they would pay quite a bit to a large city newspaper.
Those who use craigslistcraigslistcraigslist, which reports over 5 billion page views per month, have learned to be cautious about advertisements posted there. While most job ads are legitimate, personal ads, housing rentals, and for sales ads can be phonies, meant to gather people’s personal information or lure them into danger. Jobs in the gigs section are often “work for free” opportunities, or scams advertising great jobs if one will take a course or pay a fee for job listings. It’s reasonable to use craigslistcraigslistcraigslist with a great deal of caution, and certain areas of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist sites are reserved for adults only. People using restricted areas must register with craigslistcraigslistcraigslist, and inappropriate postings can be flagged by other viewers.
Lack of moderation on craigslistcraigslistcraigslist postings are perhaps the primary reason why this Internet giant is criticized. There are currently only 10 craigslistcraigslistcraigslist employees, and moderating the more than 500,000 job ads posted each month would be a very significant undertaking. This would not even include moderating all the free ads and postings generated by users. Many users take it upon themselves to flag postings, or to write comments on other posts that seem to abuse the free exchange offered by craigslistcraigslistcraigslist.
Some caution should be observed when using craigslistcraigslistcraigslist because no moderation exists on the site. You should be wary about giving out personal information like telephone numbers or addresses. If you answer a personal ad and arrange a meeting, do so in a public place. If you plan to respond to a “for sale” ad, go with several people to pick up or view the items for sale. If a job ad asks for a resume, do not include personal information until you verify the company’s existence. Avoid “too good to be true” ads, because they usually are.
With caution, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist can be an excellent site for searching jobs or for finding just about anything. Also, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist has numerous forums for people seeking information about new cities they may be visiting or moving to. Some users of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist devote time to “watchdog” blogs so that other users can check out the claims of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist ads prior to responding to them.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-craigslist.htm
Craigslist is the brainchild of Craig Newmark, and has become one of the most popular sites on the Internet. Started in San Francisco in 1995, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist is perhaps the ultimate site for classified listings. It offers job advertisements, personal ads, ads for cars, pets, home supplies and a plethora of other choices. The website is built around communities, and craigslistcraigslistcraigslist now offers sites in 450 cities and countries throughout the world. Financial information about the nonprofit company is not disclosed, but business experts believe craigslistcraigslist is worth over 10 million US dollars (USD).
For the most part, posting and reading ads on craigslist is free. The revenue made from craigslist is generated by people posting job ads at significantly below market rate. As of 2004, job ads for large businesses cost 75 USD in San Francisco and the surrounding Bay Area. In other cities and countries, job ad postings cost 25 USD. To post an ad in the "gigs" section of the want ads is free. CraigslistCraigslistCraigslist does not post banners ads, preferring to earn money only through job posting revenue.
The lowered rate for posting want ads has made craigslistcraigslistcraigslist a proverbial thorn in the side of more traditional companies offering classified ads. Newspapers, in particular, have attacked craigslistcraigslistcraigslist on numerous occasions for posting advertisements that might be construed as endorsement of illegal activities. CraigslistCraigslistCraigslist sections that sell puppies, for example, were part of a lawsuit suggesting craigslistcraigslistcraigslist illegally endorses puppy mills or the sale of outlawed breeds. The San Francisco Chronicle sued craigslistcraigslistcraigslist for this purpose, but the suit was dismissed.
It is true that craigslistcraigslistcraigslist does seriously undercut competitive newspapers through its classified ads. This is especially the case for ads other than jobs. A person wanting to sell a sofa, a car, or rent property, saves a lot of money by listing on craigslistcraigslistcraigslist instead of in a newspaper. In fact, they pay no money for doing so, whereas they would pay quite a bit to a large city newspaper.
Those who use craigslistcraigslistcraigslist, which reports over 5 billion page views per month, have learned to be cautious about advertisements posted there. While most job ads are legitimate, personal ads, housing rentals, and for sales ads can be phonies, meant to gather people’s personal information or lure them into danger. Jobs in the gigs section are often “work for free” opportunities, or scams advertising great jobs if one will take a course or pay a fee for job listings. It’s reasonable to use craigslistcraigslistcraigslist with a great deal of caution, and certain areas of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist sites are reserved for adults only. People using restricted areas must register with craigslistcraigslistcraigslist, and inappropriate postings can be flagged by other viewers.
Lack of moderation on craigslistcraigslistcraigslist postings are perhaps the primary reason why this Internet giant is criticized. There are currently only 10 craigslistcraigslistcraigslist employees, and moderating the more than 500,000 job ads posted each month would be a very significant undertaking. This would not even include moderating all the free ads and postings generated by users. Many users take it upon themselves to flag postings, or to write comments on other posts that seem to abuse the free exchange offered by craigslistcraigslistcraigslist.
Some caution should be observed when using craigslistcraigslistcraigslist because no moderation exists on the site. You should be wary about giving out personal information like telephone numbers or addresses. If you answer a personal ad and arrange a meeting, do so in a public place. If you plan to respond to a “for sale” ad, go with several people to pick up or view the items for sale. If a job ad asks for a resume, do not include personal information until you verify the company’s existence. Avoid “too good to be true” ads, because they usually are.
With caution, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist can be an excellent site for searching jobs or for finding just about anything. Also, craigslistcraigslistcraigslist has numerous forums for people seeking information about new cities they may be visiting or moving to. Some users of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist devote time to “watchdog” blogs so that other users can check out the claims of craigslistcraigslistcraigslist ads prior to responding to them.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-craigslist.htm
Salı, Mayıs 19, 2009
WHAT iS ARCHETYPE?
Archetype (1) Original model or models for persons appearing later in history or characters appearing later in literature; (2) the original model or models for places, things, or ideas appearing later in history or literature; (3) a primordial object, substance, or cycle of nature that always symbolizes or represents the same positive or negative qualities. Explanation of Definition 1: The mythical Hercules is an original model of a strong man. Consequently, he is an archetype. Exceptionally strong men who appear later in history or literature are said to be archetypical Hercules figures because they resemble the original Hercules. Similarly, the biblical Eve is an original model of a woman who tempts a man to commit sin. Thus, she is an archetype. Temptresses who appear later in history or literature are said to be archetypical Eve figures because they resemble the original Eve. Examples of archetypical Eve figures include the housewife who goads her husband to steal from his employer and the prostitute who tempts a married man to have illicit sex. In Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Lady Macbeth is an archetypical Eve figure because she, like Eve, urges her husband to commit sin–in the case of Macbeth, to commit murder. In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Brutus is an archetypical Judas (the apostle who betrayed Christ) because Brutus betrays Caesar. Explanation of Definition 2: The biblical Sodom and Gomorrah, as well as Babylon, are original examples of cities corrupted by sin. Thus, they are archetypes. Decadent cities–or cities perceived to be decadent–that appear later in history or literature are said to be archetypical sin cities. Hollywood and Las Vegas are examples. Explanation of Definition 3: Rivers, sunlight, serpents, the color red and green, and winter are examples of primordial things (existing since the beginning of time) that are archetypes because they always symbolize the same positive or negative qualities, according to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961). Rivers represent the passage of time or life; sunlight represents happiness, a new beginning, glory, truth, goodness, or God; the color red represents passion, anger, blood, or war; the color green represents new life, a new beginning, or hope; winter represents death, dormancy, or atrophy.
WHAT iS APHORiSM?
Aphorism Short, often witty statement presenting an observation or a universal truth; an adage. Examples: (1) Fish and visitors smell in three days–Benjamin Franklin. (2) Many hands make light work.–John Heywood. (3) In charity there is no excess–Francis Bacon. (4) Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown–William Shakespeare. (See also Epigram.)
http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/xLitTerms.html
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WHAT iS ANTONOMASiA?
Antonomasia (an tihn uh MAY zha) Identification of a person by an appropriate substituted phrase, such as her majesty for a queen or the Bard of Avon for Shakespeare.
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Pazartesi, Mayıs 18, 2009
WHAT iS ANTAGONiST?
Antagonist Character in a story or poem who opposes the main character (protagonist). Sometimes the antagonist is an animal, an idea, or a thing. Examples of such antagonists might include illness, oppression, or the serpent in the biblical story of Adam and Eve.
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WHAT iS ANNOTONATiON?
Annotation Explanatory note that accompanies text; footnote; comment
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WHAT iS ANAECDOTE?
Anecdote A little story, often amusing, inserted in an essay or a speech to help reinforce the thesis.
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WHAT iS ANASTROPHE?
Anastrophe (uh NAS truh fe) Inversion of the normal word order, as in a man forgotten (instead of a forgotten man) or as in the opening lines of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "Kubla Kahn": In Xanada did Kubla Kahn / A stately pleasure dome decree (instead of In Xanadu, Kubla Kahn decreed a stately pleasure dome). Here is another example, made up to demonstrate the inverted word order of anastrophe:
In the garden green and dewy
A rose I plucked for Huey
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In the garden green and dewy
A rose I plucked for Huey
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WHAT iS ANAPHORA?
Anaphora (uh NAF uh ruh) Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of word groups occurring one after the other. Examples: (1) Give me wine, give me women and give me song. (2) For everything there is a season . . . a time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted.–Bible, Ecclesiastes. (3) To die, to sleep; to sleep: perchance to dream.–Shakespeare, Hamlet. One of the most famous examples of anaphora in Shakespeare occurs in Act II, Scene I, Lines 40-68
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WHAT iS ANAGNORiSiS
Anagnorisis (an ag NOR ih sis) In Greek drama, a startling discovery; moment of epiphany; time of revelation when a character discovers his true identity. In the Sophocles play Oedipus Rex, anagnorisis occurs when Oedipus realizes who he is.
WHAT iS ANADİPLOSiS?
Anadiplosis (an uh dih PLOH sis) Figure of speech in which a word or phrase at the end of a sentence, clause, or line of verse is repeated at or near the beginning of the next sentence, clause, or line of verse. Here are examples:
The peasant pledged the country his loyalty;
loyalty was his only possession. .
My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
And every tale condemns me for a villain.–Shak
http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/xLitTerms.htmlespeare, Richard III.
The peasant pledged the country his loyalty;
loyalty was his only possession. .
My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
And every tale condemns me for a villain.–Shak
http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/xLitTerms.htmlespeare, Richard III.
WHAT iS ALLUSiON?
Allusion Reference to a historical event or to a mythical or literary figure. Examples: (1) Sir Lancelot fought with Herculean strength. (Reference to the mythological hero Hercules). (2) "I have met my Waterloo," the mountain climber said after returning from a failed attempt to conquer Everest. (Reference to the Belgian town where Napoleon lost a make-or-break battle). (3) Since my elementary-school days, math has always been my Achilles heel. (Reference to the weak spot of Achilles, the greatest warrior to fight in the Trojan War. When his mother submersed him in the River Styx after he was born, the magical waters made him invulnerable. His flesh was impervious to all harm–except for the heel of a foot. His mother was grasping the heel when she dipped him into the river. Because the river water did not touch his heel, it was the only part of his body that could suffer harm. He died when a poison-tipped arrow lodged in his heel. Hence, writers over the ages have used the term Achilles heel to refer to a person's most pronounced weakness.
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WHAT iS ALLiTERATiON?
Alliteration Repetition of consonant sounds. Examples: (1) But now I am cabined, cribbed, confined, bound into saucy doubts and fears.–Shakespeare. (2) Duncan is in his grave; after life's fitful fever he sleeps well–Shakespeare. (3) When I was one-and- twenty–A.E. Housman. (Note that "one" has a "w" sound. (4) I sent thee late a rosy wreath–Ben Jonson. (Note that "wr" has an "r" sound.)
WHAT iS ALLiTERATiON?
Alliteration Repetition of consonant sounds. Examples: (1) But now I am cabined, cribbed, confined, bound into saucy doubts and fears.–Shakespeare. (2) Duncan is in his grave; after life's fitful fever he sleeps well–Shakespeare. (3) When I was one-and- twenty–A.E. Housman. (Note that "one" has a "w" sound. (4) I sent thee late a rosy wreath–Ben Jonson. (Note that "wr" has an "r" sound.)
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WHAT iS ALLEGORY?
Allegory Literary work in which characters, events, objects, and ideas have secondary or symbolic meanings. One of the most popular allegories of the 20th Century was George Orwell's Animal Farm, about farm animals vying for power. On the surface, it is an entertaining story that even children can enjoy. Beneath the surface, it is the story of ruthless Soviet totalitarianism. Other famous examples of allegories are John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress and the 15th Century morality play, Everyman.
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WHAT iS ALEXANDRİNE VERSE?
Alexandrine Verse form popularized in France in which lines contain 12 syllables (and sometimes 13). The lines are iambic, and major accents occur on the sixth and 12th syllables; two minor accents occur, one before the sixth syllable and one before the twelfth syllable. A pause (caesura) occurs immediately after the sixth syllable. Generally, there is no enjambment in the French Alexandrine line. However, enjambment does occur in English translations of Alexandrine verse. The name Alexandrine derives from a 12th Century work about Alexander the Great that was written in this verse format. Alexandrine verse became popular in the 16th and 17th English Centuries. Jean Baptiste Racine was one of the masters of this format. Some English writers later adapted the format in their poetry.
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WHAT iS ALARUM?
Alarum Stage direction in a Shakespeare play (or a play by another author in Shakespeare's time) indicating the coming of a battle; a call to arms
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WHAT iS ADAGE WİSE SAYiNG?
Adage Wise saying; proverb; short, memorable saying that expresses a truth and is handed down from one generation to the next; short saying that expresses an observation or experience about life; maxim; aphorism; apothegm. Examples of adages are the following:
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.–Unknown author, 16th Century. Birds of a feather flock together [probably based on an observation of Robert Burton (1577-1640) in The Anatomy of Melancholy: "Birds of a feather will gather together."] A great dowry is a bed full of brambles.–George Herbert, Outlandish Proverbs, 1640. Fish and visitors smell in three days.–Benjamin Franklin. One tongue is enough for a woman.–J. Ray, English Proverbs (1670). A friend in need is a friend indeed.–Of Latin origin. A barber learns to shave by shaving fools.–J. Ray, English Proverbs (1670).
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.–Unknown author, 16th Century. Birds of a feather flock together [probably based on an observation of Robert Burton (1577-1640) in The Anatomy of Melancholy: "Birds of a feather will gather together."] A great dowry is a bed full of brambles.–George Herbert, Outlandish Proverbs, 1640. Fish and visitors smell in three days.–Benjamin Franklin. One tongue is enough for a woman.–J. Ray, English Proverbs (1670). A friend in need is a friend indeed.–Of Latin origin. A barber learns to shave by shaving fools.–J. Ray, English Proverbs (1670).
WHAT iS ACT? (SHAKESPEARE)
Act One of the main divisions of a play. Shakespeare's plays each have five acts. Each act is subdivided into scenes. An act generally focuses on one major aspect of the plot or theme. Between acts, stagehands may change scenery, and the setting may shift to another locale.
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WAİTİNG FOR GODOT (PLOT SUMMARY)
WAİTİNG FOR GODOT(PLOT SUMMARY)
A Play Written in French and English by Samuel Beckett (1906-1989)
In the evening, two tramps meet next to a tree along a country road. One of them, Estragon, is struggling to remove a boot to soothe a sort foot. Tugging at it, he says in frustration, “Nothing to be done.” .......Vladimir, interpreting the statement as an opinion about life in general, says he is beginning to accept that viewpoint but has decided to keep struggling anyway. Then he says he is glad to see Estragon again even though they had been together the day before. .......“I thought you were gone for ever.” .......“Me too.” .......Estragon says he spent the previous night in a nearby ditch and endured a beating from bullies who regularly harass him. .......While Estragon pulls at the boot, Vladimir removes his hat and shakes it out, puts it back on, then removes it again and taps at it as if to dislodge something. He puts his hat back on just as Estragon finally gets the boot off. Estragon turns the boot upside down but nothing falls out. He feels inside it, but there’s nothing. Vladimir accuses him of blaming the boot for “the faults of his feet.” Vladimir removes his hat again, finds nothing, and says, “This is getting alarming.” He also says: .......“One of the thieves was saved. It’s a reasonable percentage.” .......He is referring to the two thieves crucified with Christ. When he asks Estragon whether he has ever read the Bible, Estragon says he remembers looking at the color maps in it. The Dead Sea made him thirsty. Vladimir tells him the story of the two thieves (which bores Estragon) and wonders why only one of the four writers of the Gospels mentions that one of the thieves was saved. .......Vladimir puts his boot back on and walks around to test his foot. .......“You’re sure it was here?” he asks. .......He is referring to someone named Godot. He was supposed to show up to answer a question they posed. .......“He didn’t say for sure he would come,” Vladimir says. .......It turns out they don’t remember what day he was supposed to come. Nor do they even recall what day it is now. Although they don’t recollect what question they asked Godot, they think it had to do with a prayer, a supplication. While waiting for Godot, they have nothing to do to pass the time, so Estragon suggests that they hang themselves from the tree. Neither wants to go first, however, and in the end they decide stay alive because "it's safer," Estragon says. Besides, if Vladimir hangs himself, Estragon will be alone. .......Estragon is hungry, so Vladimir offers him a turnip–all that he has–but Estragon finds a carrot in his pocket and eats that instead. When they hear a loud cry, they huddle together in fear. The “menace” is harmless, though–a man with the loop of a long rope around his neck. At the other end of the rope is another man, who uses a whip to drive the first man. The latter is carrying a bag, a folding stool, a picnic basket, and a coat. When they ask the man with the whip whether he is Godot, the man says, “I present myself: Pozzo.” The other man is his slave, Lucky. When Pozzo asks who Godot is, Vladimir says he is a "kind of acquaintance," but Estragon says, "Personally I wouldn't even know him if I saw him." .......Pozzo barks commands at Lucky–first for the coat, then the stool, then the basket of food. He drinks wine and eats chicken while Vladimir and Estragon talk. Lucky falls asleep on his feet even though he is standing and never puts down the bag. Vladimir and Estragon notice that he has a sore on his neck from the chafing of the rope. When Estragon asks whether he may have the chicken bones that Pozzo has tossed away after eating the meat, Pozzo says, .“They’re yours.” Pozzo smokes a pipe. .......Estragon takes up the bones and chews on them. Pozzo then says he, too, would like to meet Godot, noting that the more people he meets the happier and wiser he becomes. Lucky, meanwhile, is still holding a bag and Estragon asks why he does not put it down. Pozzo says Lucky wants to impress him with his hard work so that Pozzo won’t sell him at a fair which they are going to attend. Lucky is a burden, Pozzo explains. When Lucky begins crying, Estragon tries to comfort him, but Lucky kicks him in the shins, drawing blood. Estragon and Vladimir now begin sympathizing with Pozzo, who says: .......“I can’t bear it . . . any longer . . . the way he goes on . . . you’ve no idea . . . it’s terrible . . . he must go . . . (he waves his arms) . . . I’m going mad . . . . . . .” .......“Will night never come?” Vladimir says. .......Pozzo then launches into a short lecture about the characteristics of the evening sky in that region of the country, and Vladimir and Estragon commend him for it. In return for their praise, Pozzo has Lucky dance for them and perform an encore, the same dance. Lucky next entertains them with a discourse on politics and religion but keeps talking and talking until Vladimir snatches his hat and Lucky goes silent. Pozzo and Lucky leave. Shortly thereafter, a boy who says he herds goats for Godot arrives to tell Vladimir and Estragon that Godot won’t arrive until the next day.
Act II
.......The following day, Vladimir arrives first, then Estragon, and they resume waiting. The tree, bare before, now has a few leaves. Vladimir discovers that Estragon has forgotten what happened the day before until Vladimir reminds him. When they talk about hearing voices–“dead voices”–Vladimir says they sound like sand and Estragon, like leaves rustling. Estragon tells Vladimir what the voices are saying: .......“To have lived is not enough for them,” Estragon says. “To be dead is not enough for them.” .......To kill time, Vladimir asks Estragon to sing. Estragon won’t, but he suggests they ask each other questions. Their discussion then shifts to the tree when Vladimir points out that it has leaves now. Yesterday it did not. .......“It must be spring,” Estragon says. .......When Vladimir talks again about Pozzo and Lucky, Estragon again forgets who they are. So Vladimir tells him to pull up a trouser leg to see the wound Lucky inflicted. After Estragon sees the evidence, which is festering, he says he wants to leave. But Vladimir says they must stay to wait for Godot. .......Pozzo and Lucky approach, Lucky tethered to Pozzo as before except that the rope is shorter. Lucky is wearing a different hat, and Pozzo is blind. When Pozzo bumps into Lucky, they fall and become entangled in Lucky’s baggage and rope. Pozzo calls for help. Estragon thinks Pozzo is Godot, but Vladimir informs him who it is. Vladimir and Estragon keep conversing while Pozzo keeps calling for help. Eventually, Pozzo says he’ll pay 100 francs for help. Estragon and Vladimir keep talking and Pozzo raises the reward to 200 francs. When Vladimir tries to pull Pozzo up, Vladimir falls. He tries to get up, but he too becomes entangled. Vladimir calls for Estragon to help, promising that he’ll agree to Estragon’s plan to leave. Estragon suggests that they go to the Pyrenees Mountains and Vladimir consents. Estragon tries to help but smells something. .......“Who farted?” .......“Pozzo,” Vladimir says. .......“I’m going.” .......Vladimir tries to get up again but fails. Finally, Estragon, after several attempts, succeeds in helping him up. Pozzo then frees himself, crawls off, and collapses. Estragon and Vladimir decide to help him. After a struggle, they get him to his feet. Because he is blind, Pozzo does not know who helped him. He thinks they could be robbers. Then he asks the time of day. No one is sure. Estragon isn’t even sure whether it is evening or dawn. However, Vladimir decides that it is evening and informs Pozzo. Pozzo asks for Lucky, and Estragon goes to fetch him. Lucky is still on the ground. Estragon kicks him several times but hurts his foot. .......Meanwhile, Vladimir says he and Estragon are the same men Pozzo met the day before. Pozzo doesn’t remember. He calls for Lucky, who gets up and gathers his burdens. As Pozzo and Lucky are about to leave, Vladimir asks Pozzo to have Lucky sing. But Pozzo says Lucky is mute. .......“He can’t even groan.” .......Pozzo and Lucky leave. A boy approaches and addresses Vladimir. The boy says he is not the same boy who talked with the men the day before, but he does have a message from Godot–namely, that Godot will not be coming that evening but will be coming the next day. .......Estragon, who has been sleeping, awakens and is ready to go away. But Vladimir tells them they can’t go far, because they must return to the tree the next day to wait for Godot. .......“And if he comes?” .......“We’ll be saved,” Vladimir says. .
http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/xLitTerms.html
A Play Written in French and English by Samuel Beckett (1906-1989)
In the evening, two tramps meet next to a tree along a country road. One of them, Estragon, is struggling to remove a boot to soothe a sort foot. Tugging at it, he says in frustration, “Nothing to be done.” .......Vladimir, interpreting the statement as an opinion about life in general, says he is beginning to accept that viewpoint but has decided to keep struggling anyway. Then he says he is glad to see Estragon again even though they had been together the day before. .......“I thought you were gone for ever.” .......“Me too.” .......Estragon says he spent the previous night in a nearby ditch and endured a beating from bullies who regularly harass him. .......While Estragon pulls at the boot, Vladimir removes his hat and shakes it out, puts it back on, then removes it again and taps at it as if to dislodge something. He puts his hat back on just as Estragon finally gets the boot off. Estragon turns the boot upside down but nothing falls out. He feels inside it, but there’s nothing. Vladimir accuses him of blaming the boot for “the faults of his feet.” Vladimir removes his hat again, finds nothing, and says, “This is getting alarming.” He also says: .......“One of the thieves was saved. It’s a reasonable percentage.” .......He is referring to the two thieves crucified with Christ. When he asks Estragon whether he has ever read the Bible, Estragon says he remembers looking at the color maps in it. The Dead Sea made him thirsty. Vladimir tells him the story of the two thieves (which bores Estragon) and wonders why only one of the four writers of the Gospels mentions that one of the thieves was saved. .......Vladimir puts his boot back on and walks around to test his foot. .......“You’re sure it was here?” he asks. .......He is referring to someone named Godot. He was supposed to show up to answer a question they posed. .......“He didn’t say for sure he would come,” Vladimir says. .......It turns out they don’t remember what day he was supposed to come. Nor do they even recall what day it is now. Although they don’t recollect what question they asked Godot, they think it had to do with a prayer, a supplication. While waiting for Godot, they have nothing to do to pass the time, so Estragon suggests that they hang themselves from the tree. Neither wants to go first, however, and in the end they decide stay alive because "it's safer," Estragon says. Besides, if Vladimir hangs himself, Estragon will be alone. .......Estragon is hungry, so Vladimir offers him a turnip–all that he has–but Estragon finds a carrot in his pocket and eats that instead. When they hear a loud cry, they huddle together in fear. The “menace” is harmless, though–a man with the loop of a long rope around his neck. At the other end of the rope is another man, who uses a whip to drive the first man. The latter is carrying a bag, a folding stool, a picnic basket, and a coat. When they ask the man with the whip whether he is Godot, the man says, “I present myself: Pozzo.” The other man is his slave, Lucky. When Pozzo asks who Godot is, Vladimir says he is a "kind of acquaintance," but Estragon says, "Personally I wouldn't even know him if I saw him." .......Pozzo barks commands at Lucky–first for the coat, then the stool, then the basket of food. He drinks wine and eats chicken while Vladimir and Estragon talk. Lucky falls asleep on his feet even though he is standing and never puts down the bag. Vladimir and Estragon notice that he has a sore on his neck from the chafing of the rope. When Estragon asks whether he may have the chicken bones that Pozzo has tossed away after eating the meat, Pozzo says, .“They’re yours.” Pozzo smokes a pipe. .......Estragon takes up the bones and chews on them. Pozzo then says he, too, would like to meet Godot, noting that the more people he meets the happier and wiser he becomes. Lucky, meanwhile, is still holding a bag and Estragon asks why he does not put it down. Pozzo says Lucky wants to impress him with his hard work so that Pozzo won’t sell him at a fair which they are going to attend. Lucky is a burden, Pozzo explains. When Lucky begins crying, Estragon tries to comfort him, but Lucky kicks him in the shins, drawing blood. Estragon and Vladimir now begin sympathizing with Pozzo, who says: .......“I can’t bear it . . . any longer . . . the way he goes on . . . you’ve no idea . . . it’s terrible . . . he must go . . . (he waves his arms) . . . I’m going mad . . . . . . .” .......“Will night never come?” Vladimir says. .......Pozzo then launches into a short lecture about the characteristics of the evening sky in that region of the country, and Vladimir and Estragon commend him for it. In return for their praise, Pozzo has Lucky dance for them and perform an encore, the same dance. Lucky next entertains them with a discourse on politics and religion but keeps talking and talking until Vladimir snatches his hat and Lucky goes silent. Pozzo and Lucky leave. Shortly thereafter, a boy who says he herds goats for Godot arrives to tell Vladimir and Estragon that Godot won’t arrive until the next day.
Act II
.......The following day, Vladimir arrives first, then Estragon, and they resume waiting. The tree, bare before, now has a few leaves. Vladimir discovers that Estragon has forgotten what happened the day before until Vladimir reminds him. When they talk about hearing voices–“dead voices”–Vladimir says they sound like sand and Estragon, like leaves rustling. Estragon tells Vladimir what the voices are saying: .......“To have lived is not enough for them,” Estragon says. “To be dead is not enough for them.” .......To kill time, Vladimir asks Estragon to sing. Estragon won’t, but he suggests they ask each other questions. Their discussion then shifts to the tree when Vladimir points out that it has leaves now. Yesterday it did not. .......“It must be spring,” Estragon says. .......When Vladimir talks again about Pozzo and Lucky, Estragon again forgets who they are. So Vladimir tells him to pull up a trouser leg to see the wound Lucky inflicted. After Estragon sees the evidence, which is festering, he says he wants to leave. But Vladimir says they must stay to wait for Godot. .......Pozzo and Lucky approach, Lucky tethered to Pozzo as before except that the rope is shorter. Lucky is wearing a different hat, and Pozzo is blind. When Pozzo bumps into Lucky, they fall and become entangled in Lucky’s baggage and rope. Pozzo calls for help. Estragon thinks Pozzo is Godot, but Vladimir informs him who it is. Vladimir and Estragon keep conversing while Pozzo keeps calling for help. Eventually, Pozzo says he’ll pay 100 francs for help. Estragon and Vladimir keep talking and Pozzo raises the reward to 200 francs. When Vladimir tries to pull Pozzo up, Vladimir falls. He tries to get up, but he too becomes entangled. Vladimir calls for Estragon to help, promising that he’ll agree to Estragon’s plan to leave. Estragon suggests that they go to the Pyrenees Mountains and Vladimir consents. Estragon tries to help but smells something. .......“Who farted?” .......“Pozzo,” Vladimir says. .......“I’m going.” .......Vladimir tries to get up again but fails. Finally, Estragon, after several attempts, succeeds in helping him up. Pozzo then frees himself, crawls off, and collapses. Estragon and Vladimir decide to help him. After a struggle, they get him to his feet. Because he is blind, Pozzo does not know who helped him. He thinks they could be robbers. Then he asks the time of day. No one is sure. Estragon isn’t even sure whether it is evening or dawn. However, Vladimir decides that it is evening and informs Pozzo. Pozzo asks for Lucky, and Estragon goes to fetch him. Lucky is still on the ground. Estragon kicks him several times but hurts his foot. .......Meanwhile, Vladimir says he and Estragon are the same men Pozzo met the day before. Pozzo doesn’t remember. He calls for Lucky, who gets up and gathers his burdens. As Pozzo and Lucky are about to leave, Vladimir asks Pozzo to have Lucky sing. But Pozzo says Lucky is mute. .......“He can’t even groan.” .......Pozzo and Lucky leave. A boy approaches and addresses Vladimir. The boy says he is not the same boy who talked with the men the day before, but he does have a message from Godot–namely, that Godot will not be coming that evening but will be coming the next day. .......Estragon, who has been sleeping, awakens and is ready to go away. But Vladimir tells them they can’t go far, because they must return to the tree the next day to wait for Godot. .......“And if he comes?” .......“We’ll be saved,” Vladimir says. .
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WHAT iS ABSURD DRAMA?
Absurdist Drama Play that depicts life as meaningless, senseless, uncertain. For example, an absurdist playwright's story generally ends up where it started; nothing has been accomplished and nothing gained. The characters may be uncertain of time and place, and they are virtually the same at the end of the play as they were at the beginning. Here is how the genre came about: A group of dramatists in 1940's Paris believed life is without apparent meaning or purpose; it is, in short, absurd, as French playwright and novelist Albert Camus (1913-1960) wrote in a 1942 essay, "The Myth of Sisyphus." Parodoxically, the only certainty in life is uncertainty, the absurdists believed. For more about absurdist drama, see Waiting for Godot.
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BACKGROUND OF KİNG PHİLİP'S WAR
Plymouth, Massachusetts, was established in 1620 with significant early help from Native Americans, particularly Squanto and Massasoit, Metacomet's father and chief of the Wampanoag tribe. Salem, Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, and several small towns were established around Massachusetts Bay between 1628 and 1640. The building of towns such as Windsor, Connecticut (est. 1635), Hartford, Connecticut (est. 1636), Springfield, Massachusetts (est. 1636), and Northampton, Massachusetts (est. 1654), on the Connecticut River, and towns like Providence, Rhode Island, in Narragansett Bay (est. 1638) progressively encroached on Native American territories. Prior to King Philip's War tensions fluctuated between different groups of native people and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful. As the colonists' small population grew inexorably larger over time and the number of towns increased, the Wampanoag, Nipmuck, Narragansett, Mohegan, Pequot tribes and other small tribes were each treated individually (many were traditional enemies of each other) by the English officials of Rhode Island, Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven. The New Englanders continued to expand their settlements along the coastal plain and up the Connecticut River valley. By 1675 they had even established a few small towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River. The Native Americans were running out of trade goods and territory and felt progressively squeezed by the colonists out of some of their traditional territories.
The English Civil War, followed by Oliver Cromwell's English Commonwealth, was fought and won by New England's Puritan allies who remained in England. After Cromwell's death in 1658 and the English Restoration of 1660, King Charles II of England was reestablished as monarch, but with restrictions set by the English Parliament. He was the son of the beheaded King Charles I of England and a bitter enemy of the Puritans.
By 1664 King Charles II had declared war on the Dutch and captured New York, installing Edmund Andros as governor there. The French in Canada hated almost all things English and would more likely support the Native Americans than the colonists. In 1675 the New England colonies were almost without allies in North America and would fight the war almost exclusively with their own money and militias
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip's_War
The English Civil War, followed by Oliver Cromwell's English Commonwealth, was fought and won by New England's Puritan allies who remained in England. After Cromwell's death in 1658 and the English Restoration of 1660, King Charles II of England was reestablished as monarch, but with restrictions set by the English Parliament. He was the son of the beheaded King Charles I of England and a bitter enemy of the Puritans.
By 1664 King Charles II had declared war on the Dutch and captured New York, installing Edmund Andros as governor there. The French in Canada hated almost all things English and would more likely support the Native Americans than the colonists. In 1675 the New England colonies were almost without allies in North America and would fight the war almost exclusively with their own money and militias
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip's_War
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